Managing cloud-based hardware accelerators

ABSTRACT

A cloud-based accelerator manager manages cloud-based hardware accelerators. The accelerator manager monitors computer programs running in the cloud and generates a trace that indicates which accelerators were used and when. The trace may be for a single computer program or may be for multiple computer programs. Thus, the trace can be program-specific, showing all accesses to accelerators by a single program, or may be accelerator-specific, showing all accesses to each accelerator by all computer programs. The cloud-based accelerator manager detects a failure in one of the computer programs executing in the cloud. The cloud-based accelerator manager provides the trace to a user, who can then analyze the trace to determine whether the failure was due to an accelerator. The cloud-based accelerator manager thus helps detect when cloud-based accelerators are the reason for failures for computer programs running in a cloud.

BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field

This disclosure generally relates to computer systems, and more specifically relates to cloud-based hardware accelerators in computer systems.

2. Background Art

The Open Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (OpenCAPI) is a specification developed by a consortium of industry leaders. The OpenCAPI specification defines an interface that allows any processor to attach to coherent user-level accelerators and I/O devices. OpenCAPI provides a high bandwidth, low latency open interface design specification built to minimize the complexity of high-performance accelerator design. Capable of 25 gigabits (Gbits) per second per lane data rate, OpenCAPI outperforms the current peripheral component interconnect express (PCIe) specification which offers a maximum data transfer rate of 16 Gbits per second per lane. OpenCAPI provides a data-centric approach, putting the compute power closer to the data and removing inefficiencies in traditional system architectures to help eliminate system performance bottlenecks and improve system performance. A significant benefit of OpenCAPI is that virtual addresses for a processor can be shared and utilized in an OpenCAPI device, such as an accelerator, in the same manner as the processor. With the development of OpenCAPI, hardware accelerators may now be developed that include an OpenCAPI architected interface.

BRIEF SUMMARY

A cloud-based accelerator manager manages cloud-based hardware accelerators. The accelerator manager monitors computer programs running in the cloud and generates a trace that indicates which accelerators were used and when. The trace may be for a single computer program or may be for multiple computer programs. Thus, the trace can be program-specific, showing all accesses to accelerators by a single program, or may be accelerator-specific, showing all accesses to each accelerator by all computer programs. The cloud-based accelerator manager detects a failure in one of the computer programs executing in the cloud. The cloud-based accelerator manager provides the trace to a user, who can then analyze the trace to determine whether the failure was due to an accelerator. The cloud-based accelerator manager thus helps detect when cloud-based accelerators are the reason for failures for computer programs running in a cloud.

The foregoing and other features and advantages will be apparent from the following more particular description, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING(S)

The disclosure will be described in conjunction with the appended drawings, where like designations denote like elements, and:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a sample system illustrating how an Open Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (OpenCAPI) can be used;

FIG. 2 is a flow diagram of a programmable device with an OpenCAPI interface that may include one or more hardware accelerators;

FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a computer system that includes a tool for managing accelerators;

FIG. 4 is a flow diagram showing a specific implementation for how the accelerator image generator in FIG. 3 generates an accelerator image from a code portion;

FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a specific implementation for the code analyzer in FIG. 3 that analyzes a computer program and selects a code portion;

FIG. 6 is a flow diagram of a method for identifying a code portion in a computer program, dynamically generating and deploying an accelerator that corresponds to the code portion, then revising the computer program to replace the code portion with a call to the deployed accelerator;

FIG. 7 is a block diagram showing a first sample computer program with different code portions;

FIG. 8 is a block diagram showing how a code portion can be transformed to HDL, then to an accelerator image, which can be deployed to a programmable device to provide an accelerator;

FIG. 9 is a block diagram showing the computer program in FIG. 7 after code portion B has been replaced with a call to the accelerator for code portion B;

FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing a sample accelerator catalog;

FIG. 11 is a flow diagram of a method for deploying an accelerator for a code portion when a catalog of previously-generated accelerators is maintained;

FIG. 12 is a block diagram showing a second sample computer program with different code portions;

FIG. 13 is a block diagram identifying two code portions in the computer program in FIG. 12 that would benefit from an accelerator;

FIG. 14 is a block diagram showing a sample accelerator catalog that includes an accelerator that corresponds to code portion Q;

FIG. 15 is a block diagram showing the deployment of an accelerator image for code portion Q identified in the catalog in FIG. 14 to a programmable device;

FIG. 16 is a block diagram showing the computer program in FIG. 12 after code portion Q has been replaced with a call to the accelerator for code portion Q;

FIG. 17 is a block diagram showing generation of an accelerator image from code portion R in the computer program shown in FIGS. 12 and 16;

FIG. 18 is a block diagram showing the deployment of a newly-generated accelerator image for code portion R to a programmable device;

FIG. 19 is a is a block diagram showing the computer program in FIG. 16 after code portion R has been replaced with a call to the accelerator for code portion R;

FIG. 20 is a block diagram of the accelerator catalog 1400 shown in FIG. 14 after an entry is created representing the accelerator for code portion R;

FIG. 21 is a block diagram of a sample computer program;

FIG. 22 is a block diagram of a programmable device that has an OpenCAPI interface and includes an accelerator for the loop portion in FIG. 21, an accelerator for branching tree portion in FIG. 21, and an accelerator for lengthy serial portion in FIG. 21;

FIG. 23 is a block diagram of the computer program in FIG. 21 after the code portions have been replaced with calls to corresponding accelerators;

FIG. 24 is a block diagram showing multiple computer programs using multiple accelerators in multiple programmable devices;

FIG. 25 is a block diagram showing a cloud-based accelerator manager that manages cloud-based accelerators;

FIG. 26 is a block diagram showing accelerator preference for the cloud-based accelerator manager;

FIG. 27 is a flow diagram of a method for dynamically generating and deploying a cloud-based accelerator for a code portion in a computer program running in the cloud;

FIG. 28 is a flow diagram of a method for determining a cause of failure for a computer program running in a cloud;

FIG. 29 is a table showing a sample execution trace for a single computer program running in the cloud; and

FIG. 30 is a table showing a sample execution trace for multiple computer programs running in the cloud.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As discussed in the Background Art section above, the Open Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (OpenCAPI) is a specification that defines an interface that allows any processor to attach to coherent user-level accelerators and I/O devices. Referring to FIG. 1, a sample computer system 100 is shown to illustrate some of the concepts related to the OpenCAPI interface 150. A processor 110 is coupled to a standard memory 140 or memory hierarchy, as is known in the art. The processor is coupled via a PCIe interface 120 to one or more PCIe devices 130. The processor 110 is also coupled via an OpenCAPI interface 150 to one or more coherent devices, such as accelerator 160, coherent network controller 170, advanced memory 180, and coherent storage controller 190 that controls data stored in storage 195. While the OpenCAPI interface 150 is shown as a separate entity in FIG. 1 for purposes of illustration, instead of being a separate interface as shown in FIG. 1, the OpenCAPI interface 150 can be implemented within each of the coherent devices. Thus, accelerator 160 may have its own OpenCAPI interface, as may the other coherent devices 170, 180 and 190. One of the significant benefits of OpenCAPI is that virtual addresses for the processor 110 can be shared with coherent devices that are coupled to or include an OpenCAPI interface, permitting them to use the virtual addresses in the same manner as the processor 110.

Referring to FIG. 2, a programmable device 200 represents any suitable programmable device. For example, the programmable device 200 could be an FPGA or an ASIC. An OpenCAPI interface 210 can be implemented within the programmable device. In addition, one or more accelerators can be implemented in the programmable device 200. FIG. 1 shows by way of example accelerator 1 220A, accelerator 2 220B, . . . , accelerator N 220N. In the prior art, a human designer would determine what type of accelerator is needed based on a function that needs to be accelerated by being implemented in hardware. The accelerator function could be represented, for example, in a hardware description language (HDL). Using known tools, the human designer can then generate an accelerator image that corresponds to the HDL. The accelerator image, once loaded into the programmable device such as 200 in FIG. 2, creates an accelerator in the programmable device that may be called as needed by one or more computer programs to provide the hardware accelerator(s).

A cloud-based accelerator manager manages cloud-based hardware accelerators. The accelerator manager monitors computer programs running in the cloud and generates a trace that indicates which accelerators were used and when. The trace may be for a single computer program or may be for multiple computer programs. Thus, the trace can be program-specific, showing all accesses to accelerators by a single program, or may be accelerator-specific, showing all accesses to each accelerator by all computer programs. The cloud-based accelerator manager detects a failure in one of the computer programs executing in the cloud. The cloud-based accelerator manager provides the trace to a user, who can then analyze the trace to determine whether the failure was due to an accelerator. The cloud-based accelerator manager thus helps detect when cloud-based accelerators are the reason for failures for computer programs running in a cloud.

Referring to FIG. 3, a computer system 300 is one suitable implementation of a computer system that includes an accelerator manager as described in more detail below. Server computer system 300 is an IBM POWER9 computer system. However, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the disclosure herein applies equally to any computer system, regardless of whether the computer system is a complicated multi-user computing apparatus, a single user workstation, a laptop computer system, a tablet computer, a phone, or an embedded control system. As shown in FIG. 3, computer system 300 comprises one or more processors 310, one or more programmable devices 312, a main memory 320, a mass storage interface 330, a display interface 340, and a network interface 350. These system components are interconnected through the use of a system bus 360. Mass storage interface 330 is used to connect mass storage devices, such as local mass storage device 355, to computer system 300. One specific type of local mass storage device 355 is a readable and writable CD-RW drive, which may store data to and read data from a CD-RW 395. Another suitable type of local mass storage device 355 is a card reader that receives a removable memory card, such as an SD card, and performs reads and writes to the removable memory. Yet another suitable type of local mass storage device 355 is universal serial bus (USB) that reads a storage device such a thumb drive.

Main memory 320 preferably contains data 321, an operating system 322, a computer program 323, an accelerator deployment tool 324, an accelerator catalog 329, and an accelerator manager 331. Data 321 represents any data that serves as input to or output from any program in computer system 300. Operating system 322 is a multitasking operating system, such as AIX or LINUX. Computer program 323 represents any suitable computer program, including without limitations an application program, an operating system, firmware, a device driver, etc. The accelerator deployment tool 324 preferably includes a code analyzer 325, an accelerator image generator 327, and an accelerator implementer 328. The code analyzer 325 analyzes the computer program 324 as it runs to determine its run-time performance. One suitable way for code analyzer 325 to analyze the computer program is using known techniques for monitoring the run-time performance of a computer program. For example, tools exist in the art that allow real-time monitoring of the run-time performance of a computer program using a monitor external to the computer program that detects, for example, which addresses are being executed by the processor 310 during the execution of the computer program 323. Other tools known as profilers allow inserting instrumentation code into a computer program, which is code that increments different counters when different branches of the computer program are executed. The values of the counters can be analyzed to determine the frequency of executing each portion of the computer program. The code analyzer 325, after analyzing the run-time performance of the computer program, identifies a code portion, which is a portion of code in the computer program 323, that will be improved from being deployed to a hardware accelerator to enhance the run-time performance of the computer program 323.

The accelerator image generator 327 dynamically generates an accelerator image corresponding to the code portion in the computer program 323 identified by the code analyzer 325. The code portion in the computer program 323 is shown as code portion 326 in FIGS. 4 and 5. The accelerator image generator 327 may generate an accelerator image from the code portion using any suitable method. For example, the accelerator image generator 327 could generate an equivalent hardware description language (HDL) representation of the code portion, then synthesize the HDL representation into a suitable accelerator image for the programmable device 312. The accelerator implementer 328 preferably takes an accelerator image generated by the accelerator image generator 327, and uses the accelerator image to program the programmable device 312, thereby generating a hardware accelerator 314 in a programmable device 312 that corresponds to the code portion.

In a first implementation, the accelerator deployment tool 324 dynamically generates an accelerator image corresponding to the code portion of the computer program 323, then programs the programmable device with the accelerator image so the programmable device includes a hardware accelerator that corresponds to the code portion. In a second implementation, an accelerator catalog 329 is provided and maintained. The accelerator catalog 329 preferably includes a listing of previously-generated accelerators. In the second implementation, the accelerator deployment tool 324 first checks the accelerator catalog 329 to see if a previously-generated accelerator is available for the code portion. If so, the accelerator deployment tool 324 deploys a previously generated accelerator image identified in the accelerator catalog. If not, the accelerator deployment tool 324 dynamically generates an accelerator image as described above, then loads the image into a programmable device 312 to provide the accelerator 314 that corresponds to the code portion.

The accelerator manager 331 manages accelerators after they are running and being called by one or more computer programs, such as software applications. The accelerator manager 331 monitors usage of accelerators by computer programs. In one specific implementation, the accelerator manager 331 is a cloud-based accelerator manager that manages cloud-based computer programs as they run and generates a trace that indicates which cloud-based accelerators were called and when. The function of the cloud-based accelerator manager is discussed in more detail below with respect to FIGS. 25-30.

Computer system 300 utilizes well known virtual addressing mechanisms that allow the programs of computer system 300 to behave as if they only have access to a large, contiguous address space instead of access to multiple, smaller storage entities such as main memory 320 and local mass storage device 355. Therefore, while data 321, operating system 322, computer program 323, accelerator deployment tool 324, accelerator catalog 329 and accelerator manager 331 are shown to reside in main memory 320, those skilled in the art will recognize that these items are not necessarily all completely contained in main memory 320 at the same time. It should also be noted that the term “memory” is used herein generically to refer to the entire virtual memory of computer system 300, and may include the virtual memory of other computer systems coupled to computer system 300.

Processor 310 may be constructed from one or more microprocessors and/or integrated circuits. Processor 310 could be, for example, one or more POWER9 microprocessors. Processor 310 executes program instructions stored in main memory 320. Main memory 320 stores programs and data that processor 310 may access. When computer system 300 starts up, processor 310 initially executes the program instructions that make up operating system 322. Processor 310 also executes the computer program 323, the accelerator deployment tool 324 and the accelerator manager 331.

Programmable device(s) 312 can be any suitable programmable logic device that can be dynamically programmed by the processor 310. Examples of known suitable programmable logic devices include field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). However, the programmable device 312 broadly includes any programmable logic device that allows the processor 310 to dynamically program the programmable device 312, including known technologies as well as technologies that are developed in the future.

Although computer system 300 is shown to contain only a single processor and a single system bus, those skilled in the art will appreciate that an accelerator manager as described herein may be practiced using a computer system that has multiple processors and/or multiple buses. In addition, the interfaces that are used preferably each include separate, fully programmed microprocessors that are used to off-load compute-intensive processing from processor 310. However, those skilled in the art will appreciate that these functions may be performed using I/O adapters as well.

Display interface 340 is used to directly connect one or more displays 365 to computer system 300. These displays 365, which may be non-intelligent (i.e., dumb) terminals or fully programmable workstations, are used to provide system administrators and users the ability to communicate with computer system 300. Note, however, that while display interface 340 is provided to support communication with one or more displays 365, computer system 300 does not necessarily require a display 365, because all needed interaction with users and other processes may occur via network interface 350.

Network interface 350 is used to connect computer system 300 to other computer systems or workstations 375 via network 370. Computer systems 375 represent computer systems that are connected to the computer system 300 via the network interface 350. Network interface 350 broadly represents any suitable way to interconnect electronic devices, regardless of whether the network 370 comprises present-day analog and/or digital techniques or via some networking mechanism of the future. Network interface 350 preferably includes a combination of hardware and software that allows communicating on the network 370. Software in the network interface 350 preferably includes a communication manager that manages communication with other computer systems 375 via network 370 using a suitable network protocol. Many different network protocols can be used to implement a network. These protocols are specialized computer programs that allow computers to communicate across a network. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is an example of a suitable network protocol that may be used by the communication manager within the network interface 350. In one suitable implementation, the network interface 350 is a physical Ethernet adapter.

The present invention may be a system, a method, and/or a computer program product at any possible technical detail level of integration. The computer program product may include a computer readable storage medium (or media) having computer readable program instructions thereon for causing a processor to carry out aspects of the present invention.

The computer readable storage medium can be a tangible device that can retain and store instructions for use by an instruction execution device. The computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but is not limited to, an electronic storage device, a magnetic storage device, an optical storage device, an electromagnetic storage device, a semiconductor storage device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. A non-exhaustive list of more specific examples of the computer readable storage medium includes the following: a portable computer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory), a static random access memory (SRAM), a portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), a digital versatile disk (DVD), a memory stick, a floppy disk, a mechanically encoded device such as punch-cards or raised structures in a groove having instructions recorded thereon, and any suitable combination of the foregoing. A computer readable storage medium, as used herein, is not to be construed as being transitory signals per se, such as radio waves or other freely propagating electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves propagating through a waveguide or other transmission media (e.g., light pulses passing through a fiber-optic cable), or electrical signals transmitted through a wire.

Computer readable program instructions described herein can be downloaded to respective computing/processing devices from a computer readable storage medium or to an external computer or external storage device via a network, for example, the Internet, a local area network, a wide area network and/or a wireless network. The network may comprise copper transmission cables, optical transmission fibers, wireless transmission, routers, firewalls, switches, gateway computers and/or edge servers. A network adapter card or network interface in each computing/processing device receives computer readable program instructions from the network and forwards the computer readable program instructions for storage in a computer readable storage medium within the respective computing/processing device.

Computer readable program instructions for carrying out operations of the present invention may be assembler instructions, instruction-set-architecture (ISA) instructions, machine instructions, machine dependent instructions, microcode, firmware instructions, state-setting data, configuration data for integrated circuitry, or either source code or object code written in any combination of one or more programming languages, including an object oriented programming language such as Smalltalk, C++, or the like, and procedural programming languages, such as the “C” programming language or similar programming languages. The computer readable program instructions may execute entirely on the user's computer, partly on the user's computer, as a stand-alone software package, partly on the user's computer and partly on a remote computer or entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computer may be connected to the user's computer through any type of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN), or the connection may be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider). In some embodiments, electronic circuitry including, for example, programmable logic circuitry, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA), or programmable logic arrays (PLA) may execute the computer readable program instructions by utilizing state information of the computer readable program instructions to personalize the electronic circuitry, in order to perform aspects of the present invention.

Aspects of the present invention are described herein with reference to flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus (systems), and computer program products according to embodiments of the invention. It will be understood that each block of the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, can be implemented by computer readable program instructions.

These computer readable program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. These computer readable program instructions may also be stored in a computer readable storage medium that can direct a computer, a programmable data processing apparatus, and/or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the computer readable storage medium having instructions stored therein comprises an article of manufacture including instructions which implement aspects of the function/act specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks.

The computer readable program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other device to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer, other programmable apparatus or other device to produce a computer implemented process, such that the instructions which execute on the computer, other programmable apparatus, or other device implement the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks.

The flowchart and block diagrams in the Figures illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods, and computer program products according to various embodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each block in the flowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of instructions, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). In some alternative implementations, the functions noted in the blocks may occur out of the order noted in the Figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts or carry out combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions.

FIG. 4 illustrates details of one suitable implementation of the accelerator image generator 327 shown in FIG. 3. The accelerator image generator 327 takes as input the code portion 326 shown in FIG. 4. A code to HDL generator 410 preferably converts the code portion 326 to a corresponding representation of the code portion in a hardware description language (HDL), shown in FIG. 4 as HDL for code portion 420. Known suitable hardware description languages include VHDL or Verilog, but any suitable hardware description language could be used. There are known software tools for generating an HDL representation of computer code. For example, Xilinx's Vivado High Level Synthesis is a software tool that converts code written in the C programming language to HDL. This type of tool is often referred to in the art as a “C to HDL” tool or a “C to RTL” tool, where RTL refers to the Register Transfer Level representation of a code portion needed to implement the code portion in hardware. The Code to HDL Generator 410 in FIG. 4 could be a known software tool, or could be a software tool specifically designed for the accelerator image generator 327.

The HDL for the code portion 420 is fed into one or more processes that may include both synthesis and simulation. The synthesis process 430 is shown in the middle portion of FIG. 4 in steps 432, 434, 436, 438 and 440. The simulation process 450 is shown in the lower portion of FIG. 4 in steps 452, 454 and 460. The HDL for code portion 420 may be fed into the synthesis block 432, which determines which hardware elements are needed. The place and route block 434 determines where on the programmable device to put the hardware elements, and how to route interconnections between those hardware elements. Timing analysis 436 analyzes the performance of the accelerator after the hardware elements have been placed and interconnections have been routed in block 434. Test block 438 runs tests on the resulting accelerator image to determine whether timing and performance parameters are satisfied. The test block 438 feeds back to debug block 440 when the design of the accelerator still needs improvement. This process may iterate several times.

The simulation process 450 takes in the HDL for the code portion 420, and performs a computer simulation to determine its functionality. A simulated test block 454 determines whether the simulated design functions as needed. The simulated test block 454 feeds back to a debug block 460 when the design of the accelerator still needs improvement.

The accelerator image generator 327 may include either the synthesis block 430, the simulation block 450, or both. In the most preferred implementation, the accelerator image generator 327 includes both the synthesis block 430 and the simulation block 450. The synthesis process can be very time-consuming. The simulation block is typically much faster in testing the design of the HDL than the synthesis block. When both synthesis 430 and simulation 450 are both present, the accelerator image generator can use both of these in any suitable way or combination. For example, the simulation block 450 could be used initially to iterate a few times on the design, and when the design is mostly complete, the mostly-completed design could be fed into the synthesis block 430. In another implementation, the synthesis and simulation blocks could function in parallel and cooperate until the generation of the accelerator image is complete. Regardless of the specific process used, the accelerator image generator 327 generates for the code portion 326 an accelerator image 480 that corresponds to the code portion 326. Once the accelerator image 480 has been generated, the accelerator implementer 328 in FIG. 3 can load the accelerator image 480 into a programmable device 312 to produce an accelerator 314 corresponding to the code portion 326. The accelerator 314 in the programmable device 312 may then be called by the computer program in place of the code portion 326.

Some details of one possible implementation for the code analyzer 325 in FIG. 3 are shown in FIG. 5. The code analyzer 325 can include a code profiler 510 that is used to profile the computer program. Profiling is done by the code profiler 510 preferably inserting instrumentation code into the computer program to generate profile data 520 as the computer program runs. The profile data 520 indicates many possible features of the computer program, including the frequency of executing different portions, the number or loop iterations, exceptions generated, data demand, bandwidth, time spent in a critical portion, etc. Software profilers are very well-known in the art, and are therefore not discussed in more detail here. For our purposes herein, suffice it to say the code profiler 510 generates profile data 520 that indicates run-time performance of the computer program being profiled.

The code analyzer 325 additionally includes a code selection tool 530 that identifies a code portion 326 that will be improved from being implemented in a hardware accelerator. Any suitable code portion could be identified according to any suitable criteria, algorithm or heuristic. For example, a portion of the code that performs floating-point calculations could be identified so that a corresponding floating-point accelerator could be generated to perform the floating-point calculations in the code. A portion of the code that performs a search of a database could be identified so a corresponding database search accelerator could be generated to replace the database search. A portion of the code that performs a specific function, such as data compression, XML parsing, packet snooping, financial risk calculations, etc., could also be identified. Of course, other code portions could be identified within the scope of the disclosure and claims herein. The code selection tool 530 can use any suitable criteria, algorithm or heuristic, whether currently known or developed in the future, to identify code portion 326. Once the code portion 326 in the computer program has been identified, a corresponding accelerator may be dynamically generated.

Referring to FIG. 6, a method 600 starts by running the computer program (step 610). The run-time performance of the computer program is analyzed (step 620). This can be done, for example, by the code analyzer 325 shown in FIGS. 3 and 5 and discussed above. A code portion in the computer program is identified to implement in an accelerator (step 630). An accelerator image for the code portion is generated (step 640). The accelerator image is deployed to a programmable device (step 650). The computer program is then revised to replace the code portion with a call to the deployed accelerator (step 660). At this point, the deployed accelerator will perform the functions in hardware that were previously performed by the code portion, thereby improving the run-time performance of the computer program. Note that method 600 loops back to step 610 and continues, which means method 600 can iterate to continuously monitor the computer program and deploy accelerators, as needed, to improve performance of the computer program.

Some examples are now provided to illustrate the concepts discussed above. FIG. 7 shows a sample computer program 700 that includes multiple code portions, shown in FIG. 7 as code portion A 710, code portion B 720, code portion C 730, . . . , code portion N 790. We assume code portion B 720 is identified as a code portion that will be improved from being implemented in a hardware accelerator. Code portion B 720 is then converted to a corresponding HDL representation 810, as shown in FIG. 8. The HDL for code portion B 810 is then used to generate an accelerator image for code portion B 820. This could be done, for example, using the method shown in FIG. 4, or using any other suitable method. Once the accelerator image for code portion B 820 has been generated, the accelerator image is loaded into a programmable device 830 to generate the accelerator for code portion B 850. Programmable device 830 is one suitable implementation for the programmable device 312 shown in FIG. 3, and preferably includes an OpenCAPI interface 840.

Once the accelerator is deployed in the programmable device 830, the code portion B in the computer program is deleted and replaced by a call to the accelerator for code portion B 910 shown in FIG. 9. In the most preferred implementation, the accelerator for code portion B includes a return to the code that called it once the processing in the accelerator for code portion B is complete. In this manner the computer program 900, when it needs to execute what was previously code portion B, will make a call to the accelerator for code portion B, which will perform the needed functions in hardware, then return to the computer program. In this manner a suitable accelerator may be automatically generated for an identified code portion to increase the run-time performance of the computer program.

In a first implementation, an accelerator may be dynamically generated to improve the performance of a computer program, as shown in FIGS. 4-9 and described above. In a second implementation, once an accelerator is dynamically generated, it can be stored in a catalog so it may be reused when needed. FIG. 10 shows a sample accelerator catalog 1000, which is one suitable implementation for the accelerator catalog 329 shown in FIG. 3. An accelerator catalog may include any suitable data or information that may be needed for an accelerator or the corresponding code portion. For the specific example shown in FIG. 10, accelerator catalog includes each of the following fields: Name, Location, Least Recently Used (LRU), Most Recently Used (MRU), Dependencies, Capabilities, Latency, and Other Characteristics. The Name field preferably includes a name for the accelerator. The name field may also include a name for a code portion that corresponds to the accelerator. The location field preferably specifies a path that identifies the location for the accelerator image. While the accelerator image could be stored in the catalog 1000, in the most preferred implementation the catalog 1000 instead includes a path to storage external to the accelerator catalog 1000 where the accelerator image is stored. The least recently used (LRU) field could include the time when the accelerator was used the first time. In the alternative, the LRU field could include a flag that is set when the accelerator is the least recently used of all the accelerators in the catalog. The most recently used (MRU) field could include the time when the accelerator was last used. In the alternative, the MRU field could include a flag that is set when the accelerator is the most recently used of all the accelerators in the catalog. The error rate field provides a suitable error rate for the accelerator, and can be expressed in any suitable way. For the example in FIG. 10, the error rate is expressed as a number X of errors per 100 runs of the accelerator. The error rate field could include any suitable error information that could be, for example, dynamically monitored so an increase in the error rate could result in a notification to take corrective action. The dependencies field may indicate any dependencies the accelerator may have. For example, the dependencies field could specify the specific programmable device the accelerator was designed for. The dependencies field could also specify any dependencies on other accelerators. Thus, accelerator Acc1 in FIG. 10 has a dependency on Acc2, which means Acc1 needs Acc2 to also be implemented. The capabilities field can provide any suitable indication of the capabilities of the accelerator. In the two entries shown in FIG. 10, the capabilities are shown as floating point (FP) Unit for Acc1 and Graphics for AccN. Note, however, the capabilities can be indicated in any suitable way. For example, the capabilities could include a specification of the code portion for which the accelerator was implemented. A separate index could be maintained that correlates each code portion to its corresponding accelerator, along with a descriptor or other data that describes attributes of the code portion. The capabilities field could include any suitable information, such as a pointer to the index, so the code portion corresponding to the accelerator could be easily identified.

The latency field preferably specifies average latency for the accelerator. For the example shown in FIG. 10, Acc1 has a latency of 1.0 microseconds while accelerator AccN has a latency of 500 nanoseconds. Latency could represent, for example, the time required for the accelerator to perform its intended function. The other characteristics field can include any other suitable information or data that describes or otherwise identifies the accelerator, its characteristics and attributes, and the code portion corresponding to the accelerator. For the two sample entries in FIG. 10, the other characteristics field indicates Acc1 includes a network connection, and AccN has an affinity to Acc5, which means AccN should be placed in close proximity to Acc5 on the programmable device, if possible. The various fields in FIG. 10 are shown by way of example, and it is within the scope of the disclosure and claims herein to provide an accelerator catalog with any suitable information or data.

Referring to FIG. 11, a method 1100 in accordance with the second implementation begins by running the computer program (step 1110). The run-time performance of the computer program is analyzed (step 1120). One or more code portions in the computer program that will be improved by use of a hardware accelerator are identified (step 1130). One of the identified code portions is selected (step 1140). When there is a previously-generated accelerator in the accelerator catalog for the selected code portion (step 1150=YES), the previously-generated accelerator image is deployed to the programmable device (step 1160) to provide the accelerator. The computer program is then revised to replace the selected code portion with a call to the accelerator (step 1162). When there is no previously-generated accelerator in the catalog for the selected code portion (step 1150=NO), an accelerator image for the selected code portion is dynamically generated (step 1170), the accelerator image is deployed to a programmable device (step 1172), the computer program is revised to replace the code portion with a call to the newly deployed accelerator (step 1174), and the accelerator is stored to the accelerator catalog (step 1176). When the accelerator image is stored within the catalog entry, step 1176 write the accelerator image to the catalog. When the accelerator image is stored in storage external to the catalog, step 1176 stores the accelerator image to the external storage and writes an entry to the accelerator catalog that includes a path to the accelerator image in the external storage.

When there are more identified code portions (step 1180=YES), method 1100 loops back to step 1140 and continues. When there are no more identified code portions (step 1180=NO), method 1100 loops back to step 1120 and continues. This means method 1100 most preferably continuously monitors the computer program and dynamically generates and/or deploys accelerators as needed to improve the run-time performance of the computer program.

An example is now provided to illustrate the concepts in FIG. 11 that relate to the second preferred implementation. FIG. 12 shows a sample computer program 1200 that includes many code portions, represented in FIG. 12 as code portion P 1210, code portion Q 1220, code portion R 1230, . . . , code portion Z 1290. We assume steps 1110, 1120 and 1130 in FIG. 11 are performed. In step 1130, we assume code portion Q 1220 and code portion R 1230 are identified as code portions that will be improved by implementing these code portions in an accelerator, as shown in table 1300 in FIG. 13. We further assume we have an accelerator catalog 1400 that is one suitable implementation for the accelerator catalog 329 shown in FIG. 3. Accelerator catalog 1400 has a single entry for AccQ, which we assume is an accelerator for code portion Q 1220 that was generated previously. Because the accelerator for code portion Q was previously-generated, the corresponding accelerator image can be used without having to generate the accelerator image anew. We assume code portion Q 1220 is selected in step 1140. There is a previously-generated accelerator in the catalog for code portion Q (step 1150=YES), so the previously-generated accelerator image corresponding to code portion Q 1510 is deployed to the programmable device (step 1160), as shown in FIG. 15. Deploying the accelerator image for code portion Q 1510 identified in the catalog to the programmable device 1520 results in implementing the accelerator for code portion Q 1540 in the programmable device 1520. The accelerator for code portion Q 1540 may then be called by the computer program to perform the functions of previous code portion Q in hardware, thereby increasing the run-time performance of the computer program. The programmable device 1520 is one suitable example of a programmable device 312 shown in FIG. 3, and preferably includes an OpenCAPI interface 1530.

The computer program is then revised to replace the selected code portion Q 1220 with a call to the accelerator for code portion Q (step 1162). FIG. 16 shows the computer program 1200 in FIG. 12 after the code portion Q has been replaced with the call to the accelerator for code portion Q, as shown at 1610 in FIG. 16. Thus, computer program 1600, instead of executing code portion Q, instead invokes the accelerator for code portion Q 1540 in the programmable device 1520 to increase the run-time performance of the computer program.

There is still an identified code portion (step 1180=YES), namely code portion R shown in FIG. 13, so method 11 in FIG. 11 loops back to step 1140, where code portion R 1230 is selected (step 1140). There is no previously-generated accelerator in the catalog 1400 shown in FIG. 14 for code portion R (step 1150=NO), so an accelerator image is dynamically generated for code portion R (step 1170). This is represented in FIG. 17, where the code portion R 1230 is used to generate HDL for code portion R 1710, which is used to generate the accelerator image for code portion R 1720. The accelerator image for code portion R 1720, which was newly dynamically generated, is then deployed to the programmable device (step 1172). This is shown in FIG. 18, where the programmable device 1520 that already includes accelerator for code portion Q 1540 is loaded with the accelerator image for code portion R 1720 to generate the accelerator for code portion R 1810. The computer program is then revised to replace code portion R with the call to the accelerator for code portion R (step 1174), as shown at 1910 in FIG. 19. The accelerator for code portion R is also stored in the accelerator catalog (step 1176), resulting in the accelerator catalog 1400 containing entries AccQ and AccR corresponding to two accelerators, as shown in FIG. 20.

A more specific example is shown in FIGS. 21 and 22. For this example we assume a computer program called Sample1 2100 includes three different code portions of interest, namely a loop portion 2110, a branching tree portion 2120, and a lengthy serial portion 2130. Loop portion 2110 is representative of a code portion that is a loop that can be unrolled because each iteration is largely independent from other iterations. Due to the independence of each iteration, the loop can be unrolled, and the loop function can be deployed to an accelerator so each iteration will run in parallel in hardware. Financial risk calculations sometimes include code portions such as loop portion 2110. Running different iterations of the loop in parallel in a hardware accelerator increases the run-time performance of the Sample1 computer program.

Computer program Sample1 2100 also includes a branching tree portion 2120. We assume for this example branching tree portion 2120 operates on one or more relatively deep branching trees. In this case, the branching tree portion 2120 can be deployed to an accelerator so each branch of the branching tree will run in parallel in hardware, the branch selection criteria will be calculated, and at the final stage of the logic, the result will be selected from the selected branch. Running different branches of the branching tree in parallel in a hardware accelerator increases the run-time performance of the Sample1 computer program.

Computer program Sample1 2100 also includes a lengthy serial portion 2130. We assume for this example the lengthy serial portion 2130 can be shortened by leveraging unique hardware capabilities in an accelerator. Some math functions, for example, could by lengthy serial portions that could be implemented in an accelerator. Running a lengthy serial portion in hardware increases the run-time performance of the Sample1 computer program.

We assume the code portions in FIG. 21 are identified according to profile data 520 generated by the code profiler 510 in FIG. 5. The criteria used by the code selection tool 530 to select the code portions 2110, 2120 and 2130, which are examples of code portion 326 in FIGS. 4 and 5, may be any suitable criteria. The three example code portions 2110, 2120 and 2130 in FIG. 21 as described above indicate suitable criteria that could be used by the code selection tool 530 to select code portions 2110, 2120 and 2130 to be implemented in one or more accelerators. Of course, the claims and disclosure herein expressly extend to any suitable criteria for the code selection tool 530 to select one or more code portions to be implemented in one or more accelerators.

FIG. 22 shows a programmable device 2220 that has an OpenCAPI interface 2230 and includes an accelerator for loop portion 2240, an accelerator for branching tree portion 2250, and an accelerator for lengthy serial portion 2260. While these three accelerators are shown to be implemented in the same programmable device 2220 in FIG. 22, one skilled in the art will recognize these could be implemented in separate programmable devices as well.

FIG. 23 shows the computer program Sample1 2100 after the code portions shown in FIG. 21 are replaced with calls to the hardware accelerators shown in FIG. 22. Thus, loop portion 2110 in FIG. 21 has been replaced by a call to the accelerator for loop portion 2310; the branching tree portion 2320 in FIG. 21 has been replaced by a call to the accelerator for the branching tree portion 2320; and the lengthy serial portion 2130 in FIG. 21 has been replaced by a call to the accelerator for the lengthy serial portion 2330. Because the Sample1 computer program 2100 in FIG. 23 now includes calls to hardware accelerators, the run-time performance of the computer program 2100 is increased.

Referring to FIG. 24, a sample system 2400 is shown that includes two programmable devices 2410 and 2450 that each include an OpenCAPI interface and multiple accelerators. Programmable devices 2410 and 2450 are preferably Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), but could be other types of programmable devices as well. Programmable device 2410 includes an OpenCAPI interface 2412 and accelerators 2420, 2430, . . . , 2440. Programmable device 2450 similarly includes an OpenCAPI interface 2452 and accelerators 2460, 2470, . . . , 2480. Multiple computer programs are shown that make calls to one or more of the accelerators in the programmable devices via their respective OpenCAPI interfaces. In this simple example, Computer Program A 2490 accesses one or more of the accelerators in the first programmable device 2410 and also accesses one or more of the accelerators in the second programmable device 2450, as shown by the arrows from Computer Program A 2490 to both OpenCAPI interfaces 2412 and 2452. Computer Program B 2492 accesses one or more accelerators in the first programmable device 2410, as shown by the arrow from Computer Program B 2492 to the OpenCAPI interface 2412, but Computer Program B 2492 does not access any of the accelerators in the second programmable device 2450. Computer Program C 2494 accesses one or more of the accelerators in the first programmable device 2410 and also accesses one or more of the accelerators in the second programmable device 2450, as shown by the arrows from Computer Program C 2494 to both OpenCAPI interfaces 2412 and 2452. Computer Program N 2496 accesses one or more accelerators in the second programmable device 2450, as shown by the arrow from Computer Program N 2496 to the OpenCAPI interface 2452, but Computer Program N 2496 does not access any of the accelerators in the first programmable device 2410. While two programmable devices 2410 and 2450 are shown in FIG. 24 by way of example, one skilled in the art will recognize that any suitable number of programmable devices could be provided with any suitable number of accelerators. FIG. 24 simply illustrates that many different computer programs can access many different accelerators in different programmable devices.

While the accelerator manager and accelerators are discussed above as being in a dedicated computer system, the accelerator manager and accelerators could be implemented in a cloud. FIG. 25 shows a system 2500 that includes a cloud-based accelerator manager 2510, one or more computer programs running in the cloud 2520, one or more cloud-based accelerators 2530, and a cloud interface 2540 to one or more user systems 2550. Cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 preferably includes an accelerator deployment tool 2512. Cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 is one suitable implementation for the accelerator manager 331 shown in FIG. 3. Accelerator deployment tool 2512 is one suitable implementation for the accelerator deployment tool 324 in FIG. 3. The computer program(s) running in the cloud 2520 are suitable examples of computer program 323 shown in FIG. 3. The cloud-based accelerators 2530 are suitable examples of accelerators 314 shown in FIG. 3 and accelerators shown in FIG. 24. In one specific example, the computer programs shown in FIG. 24 could be the computer program(s) running in the cloud 2520 in FIG. 25, and the accelerators (e.g., 2420, 2430, . . . , 2440 and 2460, 2470, . . . , 2480) shown in FIG. 24 could be the cloud-based accelerators 2530 shown in FIG. 25. Much work has been done in the art to virtualize FPGA accelerators so the FPGA accelerators can be cloud-based accelerators. However, most of this work has focused on tools and systems that allow a user to explicitly call a cloud-based accelerator in the user's computer program. The cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 allows dynamically generating and/or deploying cloud-based accelerators 2530, which can either be explicitly called by code in one or more user systems 2550, or can be called by one or more computer programs running in the cloud 2520 under the control of the accelerator manager 2510 without the user system(s) 2550 even being aware that certain functions of the computer program(s) running in the cloud 2520 have been implemented in cloud-based accelerators 2530.

The cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 preferably includes a specified accelerator preference 2610, as shown in FIG. 26. The accelerator preference 2610 specifies that the cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 prefers currently-implemented and currently-deployed accelerators 2620. The reason is quite simple, when an accelerator is both implemented and deployed, it is ready to receive work. The accelerator preference 2620 specifies that when there is no currently-implemented and currently-deployed accelerator that the cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 can use, the next preference is for currently-implemented but not deployed accelerators 2630. An accelerator that is currently-implemented is one for which an accelerator image (e.g., 480 in FIG. 4) has already been generated. Thus, the amount of work required to get the accelerator ready for use is to deploy the accelerator image to a programmable device. The last preference for the cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 is to select an accelerator that has not yet been implemented 2640, which means the cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 will have to dynamically generate the needed accelerator as described above with reference to FIG. 4, then use the accelerator image to program a programmable device, thereby deploying the new accelerator, as shown by way of example in FIG. 8.

FIG. 27 shows a method 2700 that is preferably performed by the accelerator deployment tool 2512 in the cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 shown in FIG. 25. Method 2700 is similar in many respects to method 600 shown in FIG. 6 and described above. A computer program is run in a cloud (step 2710). The run-time performance of the computer program in the cloud is analyzed (step 2720). A code portion in the computer program to implement in an accelerator is identified (step 2730). An accelerator image is generated for the code portion (step 2740). The accelerator image is then deployed to a programmable device in the cloud (step 2750), which results in deploying the cloud-based accelerator and making the cloud-based accelerator ready for use. The computer program running in the cloud is then revised to replace the code portion with a call to the deployed cloud-based accelerator (step 2760). Using method 2700 in FIG. 27, the cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 in FIG. 25 could identify a portion of one of the computer programs running in the cloud 2520, dynamically generate and deploy an accelerator for the code portion as a cloud-based accelerator 2530, then modify the computer program to call the newly-generated cloud-based accelerator instead of calling the code portion. All of this could be done “under the covers”, meaning neither the user nor any user system 2550 need be aware that cloud-based accelerator manager 2510 is dynamically improving performance of a computer program running in the cloud 2520 by using a cloud-based accelerator 2530.

In addition to the dynamic generation and use of a cloud-based accelerator as discussed in the preceding paragraph, the cloud interface 2540 may include the ability for a user system 2550 to explicitly call one or more cloud-based accelerators 2530. The result is a very powerful and flexible system 2500 that allows both explicit calls to cloud-based accelerators by computer programs running in the cloud 2520, as well as dynamic generation and/or deployment of cloud-based accelerator(s) 2530 to improve the quality of service of the cloud system 2500 by increasing the run-time performance of one or more computer programs running in the cloud 2520.

The cloud-based accelerator manager can help a user determine whether a failure in a computer program running in the cloud was due to a failure in an accelerator or not. Referring to FIG. 28, method 2800 starts by the cloud-based accelerator manager generating an execution trace of a computer program running in the cloud that indicates which accelerators were used and when (step 2810). An execution trace is any suitable information that indicates which accelerators were used and when the accelerators were used. The execution trace could be generated, for example, by the cloud-based accelerator manager monitoring addresses being executed by the computer program. The cloud-based accelerator manager detects a failure in a computer program running in the cloud (step 2820). The cloud-based accelerator manager provides the execution trace to the user (step 2830). The user can then analyze the execution trace to determine whether the failure in the computer program was due to a failure in an accelerator (step 2840). Method 2800 is then done. The ability to track and report the cause of a failure in a computer program becomes even more important when the cloud-based accelerator manager can dynamically generate and/or deploy cloud-based accelerators to improve the run-time performance of a cloud-based computer program without the user being aware this is happening under the covers.

An execution trace can include any suitable data that could be used to inform a user of information that will help the user determine where and why a failure occurred in the cloud-based computer program. Extremely simplified execution traces are shown in FIGS. 29 and 30 by way of illustration to show some of the information that could be included in an execution trace. The execution trace in FIG. 29 is a trace of a single cloud-based computer program as it executed, and shows all accesses to accelerators by a single program. The execution trace in FIG. 29 therefore includes a time sequence of execution of the computer program. The Time column includes timestamps that include date and time information that is of sufficiently fine granularity that allows distinguishing when things occur in a computer program. In FIGS. 29 and 30 the timestamps are shown as TS1, TS2, . . . , TSN to indicate timestamps that are increasing in value. The Module column specifies a name of a module in the computer program that was being executing during the timestamp. The Acc ID column includes an accelerator identifier when an accelerator was performing work for the computer program, and includes a specified value representative of null or none to indicate when no accelerator was performing work for the computer program during the timestamp. We assume the execution trace shown in FIG. 29 is for a computer program called Prog1. With the sample data in FIG. 29, we see that at timestamp TS1, module Mod1 in Prog1 was being executed, and no accelerator was performing work for Prog1 at the point in time specified in the timestamp. At timestamp TS2, module Mod1 in Prog1 was being executed, and an accelerator called Acc3 was performing work for Prog1. Similarly, at timestamp TS3, module Mod1 in Prog1 was being executed, and accelerator Acc3 was performing work for Prog1. At timestamp TS4, module Mod1 in Prog1 was being executed, with no accelerator performing work for Prog1. At timestamp TS5, module Mod2 was being executed, and an accelerator called Acc1 was performing work for Prog1. At timestamp TS6, module Mod2 in Prog1 was being executed, with no accelerator performing work for Prog1. The trace continues for any suitable number of entries, represented by timestamp N TSN. For the simple example in FIG. 29, if the computer program failed sometime between TS2 and TS3, this could mean the failure was due to Acc3 rather than the computer program itself. The execution trace thus becomes a tool to determine when and where a failure occurred, and more specifically, whether the failure could be due to a failure in an accelerator.

The execution trace in FIG. 30 includes multiple computer programs that are running in the cloud and accessing cloud-based accelerators. The execution trace in FIG. 30 is accelerator-specific, providing a log of all accesses to each accelerator by all computer programs. Timestamps TS1 through TS6 include data for two computer programs Prog1 and Prog2. At timestamp TS1, module Mod1 in Prog1 is executing, and no accelerator is performing work for Mod1. At timestamp TS2, module Mod1 in Prog1 is executing, and Acc3 is performing work for Mod1. At timestamp TS3, module Mod4 in Prog2 is executing, and Acc2 is performing work for Mod4. At timestamp TS4, module Mod4 in Prog2 is executing, and no accelerator is performing work for Mod4. At timestamp TS5, module M1 in Prog1 is executing, and Acc1 is performing work for Mod1. At timestamp TS6, module Mod2 in Prog1 is executing, and no accelerator is performing work for Mod2. The execution trace can continue to timestamp N, which is shown to correspond to a module ModY in program ProgX, with no accelerator performing work for ModY.

The accelerator manager can distinguish in the trace between calls to cloud-based accelerators that are explicit in the computer programs themselves versus calls to accelerators that dynamically replaced a code portion in the computer program, as shown in method 2700 in FIG. 27. The accelerator manager can visually distinguish between the calls in the computer programs themselves and the calls that were placed in the computer programs by the accelerator manager using any suitable visual indication. For example, the execution trace could include a column that indicates whether the call to the accelerator was in the original code or was inserted by the accelerator manager. The execution trace could color different entries different colors depending on whether the call to the accelerator was in the original code or was inserted by the accelerator manager. One specific way for visually indicating the difference between calls to cloud-based accelerators that were in the original code and calls to cloud-based accelerators that were generated by the accelerator manager could highlight entries in the execution trace in some way. For example, the execution trace in FIG. 30 has the entries for timestamps TS3 and TS5 bolded. This could mean, for example, that at timestamp TS3 the call in Mod4 of Prog2 to Acc2 was not in the original code, but was inserted by the accelerator manager. Similarly, the bold lines around the TS5 entry could mean, for example, that at timestamp TS5 the call in Mod1 of Prog1 to Acc1 was not in the original code, but was inserted by the accelerator manager. The entry for timestamp TS2, in contrast, is not bolded, which visually indicates to a user that the call to Acc3 in Mod1 of Prog1 was an explicit call in Mod1, rather than a call in Mod1 that was dynamically inserted by the cloud-based accelerator manager. While bolding is shown in FIG. 30, this is shown by way of example. The disclosure and claims herein expressly extend to any suitable way to distinguish between calls to accelerators that existed in the computer program before the computer program was executed in the cloud and calls to accelerators that were inserted into the computer program by the accelerator manager while the computer program was executed in the cloud.

The accelerators shown in FIGS. 8, 15, 22 and 24 include an OpenCAPI interface. Note, however, the OpenCAPI interface is not strictly necessary to dynamically generate, deploy and manage accelerators as disclosed and claimed herein. Deploying an accelerator to a programmable device that includes an OpenCAPI interface is useful because the OpenCAPI specification is open, allowing anyone to develop to the specification and interoperate in a cloud environment. In addition, the OpenCAPI interface provides lower latency, reducing the “distance” between an accelerator and the data it may consume or produce. Furthermore, OpenCAPI provides higher bandwidth, increasing the amount of data an accelerator can consume or produce in a given time. These advantages of OpenCAPI combine to provide a good environment for implementing a code portion of a computer program in an accelerator, and to lower the threshold for a code portion to be better in an accelerator than in the computer program. However, the disclosure and claims herein apply equally to accelerators that do not include or have access to an OpenCAPI interface.

A cloud-based accelerator manager manages cloud-based hardware accelerators. The accelerator manager monitors computer programs running in the cloud and generates a trace that indicates which accelerators were used and when. The trace may be for a single computer program or may be for multiple computer programs. Thus, the trace can be program-specific, showing all accesses to accelerators by a single program, or may be accelerator-specific, showing all accesses to each accelerator by all computer programs. The cloud-based accelerator manager detects a failure in one of the computer programs executing in the cloud. The cloud-based accelerator manager provides the trace to a user, who can then analyze the trace to determine whether the failure was due to an accelerator. The cloud-based accelerator manager thus helps detect when cloud-based accelerators are the reason for failures for computer programs running in a cloud.

One skilled in the art will appreciate that many variations are possible within the scope of the claims. Thus, while the disclosure is particularly shown and described above, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that these and other changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the claims. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. An apparatus executing in a cloud comprising: at least one processor; a memory coupled to the at least one processor; a computer program executing in the cloud; and an accelerator manager executing in the cloud and generating an execution trace of the computer program that indicates which of a plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators implemented in a plurality of programmable devices are used by the computer program and when, the accelerator manager detecting a failure in the computer program and providing the execution trace to a user.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein each of the plurality of programmable devices comprises an Open Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (OpenCAPI).
 3. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein each of the plurality of programmable devices comprises a field-programmable gate array (FPGA).
 4. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the execution trace comprises a plurality of entries, wherein at least one of the entries comprises a timestamp, an identifier of a code portion in the computer program, and an accelerator identifier that identifies one of the plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators that were actively performing work for the code portion at a time specified by the timestamp, wherein the execution trace includes information that indicates when the failure in the computer program was due to a failure in one of the plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the execution trace comprises a time sequence of execution of the computer program.
 6. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the execution trace comprises a log of the computer program and at least one other computer program that access at least one of the plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators.
 7. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the accelerator manager analyzes run-time performance of the computer program to identify a code portion that will be improved from being implemented in a hardware accelerator, dynamically generates from the code portion an accelerator image, deploys the accelerator image to one of the plurality of programmable devices to generate one of the plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators, and replaces the code portion in the computer program with a call to the one cloud-based hardware accelerator.
 8. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the execution trace includes a first call to a first accelerator that is explicitly called in the computer program and a second call to a second accelerator that is dynamically generated and deployed by the accelerator manager, wherein the execution trace marks the second call to the second accelerator so it is visually distinguishable from the first call to the first accelerator.
 9. A method for determining a cause of failure in a computer program, the method comprising: providing a plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators implemented in a plurality of programmable devices in a cloud; executing the computer program in the cloud; generating an execution trace of the computer program that indicates which of the plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators are used by the computer program and when; detecting the failure in the computer program; and providing the execution trace to a user.
 10. The method of claim 9 wherein each of the plurality of programmable devices comprises an Open Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (OpenCAPI).
 11. The method of claim 9 wherein each of the plurality of programmable devices comprises a field-programmable gate array (FPGA).
 12. The method of claim 9 wherein the execution trace comprises a plurality of entries, wherein at least one of the entries comprises a timestamp, an identifier of a code portion in the computer program, and an accelerator identifier that identifies one of the plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators that were actively performing work for the code portion at a time specified by the timestamp, wherein the execution trace includes information that indicates when the failure in the computer program was due to a failure in one of the plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators.
 13. The method of claim 9 wherein the execution trace comprises a time sequence of execution of the computer program.
 14. The method of claim 9 wherein the execution trace comprises a log of the computer program and at least one other computer program that access at least one of the plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators.
 15. The method of claim 9 further comprising: analyzing run-time performance of the computer program to identify a code portion that will be improved from being implemented in a hardware accelerator; dynamically generating from the code portion an accelerator image; deploying the accelerator image to one of the plurality of programmable devices to generate one of the plurality of cloud-based hardware accelerators; and replacing the code portion in the computer program with a call to the one cloud-based hardware accelerator.
 16. The method of claim 9 wherein the execution trace includes a first call to a first accelerator that is explicitly called in the computer program and a second call to a second accelerator that is dynamically generated and deployed by a cloud-based accelerator manager, wherein the execution trace marks the second call to the second accelerator so it is visually distinguishable from the first call to the first accelerator. 